Tuesday, 4 November 2014

Who is "the brain"? (previously published as a newspaper feature in Norwegian)

Hvem er egentlig denne “hjernen”?

To saker i nyhetsbildet tyder på at det er fristende for oss å tenke på hjernen som noe vi har, heller enn noe vi er. I hvilke situasjoner er det nyttig å studere hjernen direkte, heller enn å studere atferden som hjernen produserer?


Illustrasjon av Flickr-bruker J E Theriot, gjort tilgjengelig med Creative Commons lisens Navngivelse 2.0 Generisk.

Vi ser ofte overskrifter som “Traumer kan endre hjernen” eller “Slik kan dataspill trene hjernen”. Men hvem er egentlig denne “hjernen”? Vel, det er jo oss selv, selvsagt. Du er hjernen din, og hjernen din er deg.

Riktignok mente Descartes at “sjelen” var noe annet enn “kroppen” (altså en dualisme), men dette synet er forlengst forkastet, og all moderne vitenskap og medisin jobber ut fra forutsetningen at hjernen skaper vår opplevelse (en monisme). Derfor oppfatter vi verden ulikt om hjernen påvirkes av skader, medisiner eller forgiftning, og når vi tenker på noe eller føler noe kan vi måle det som endret aktivitet i hjernen. Så når vi endrer oss, er det hjernen som endrer seg. Når mediene velger overskrifter som de nevnt over, må dette skyldes at vi fortsatt tenker på personen som noe annet enn kroppen, selv om vi egentlig vet bedre.

Den tyske professoren Manfred Spitzer skal på fredag 7. november delta på et seminar som i BT ble presentert med undertittelen “en tysk hjerneforsker er på vei til Bergen for å skape dårlig stemning”. Anledningen er promoteringen av Spitzers nyoversatte bok  “Digital demens”. Budskapet hans synes å være at bruken av digitale verktøy endrer de unges hjerne på en måte som er uheldig for læring. Den tyske utgaven av boken fikk i sin tid hard medfart i tyske aviser. De siste dagene har også norske forskere som Fjell og Moser tatt til motmæle mot Spitzers bombastiske påstander.

Det høres rimelig ut at ukritisk bruk av PC og nettbrett på skolen kan være uheldig. Men hvorfor legges det vekt på Spitzers bakgrunn som psykiater og hjerneforsker, og at han mener at bruk av digitale verktøy endrer hjernen? Vi får anta at dette fokuset er valgt fordi det skal gjøre budskapet tydeligere, eller kanskje mer skremmende, enn om han bare hadde sagt at de unges læring blir påvirket. Siden all erfaring endrer hjernen, har Spitzer rett når han sier at hjernen endres av å stirre på en skjerm i fire timer, men det samme kan sies om en heller leser bøker, kjører bil eller står på ski.

Et annet eksempel på at det faller naturlig for oss å skille mellom hjernen og personen, er medieomtalen av en fersk forskningsartikkel fra Bergen. Bakgrunnen er et prisverdig samarbeid mellom tre forskere fra The Choice Lab, NHH, og tre forskere fra Institutt for biologisk og medisinsk psykologi, UiB (for ordens skyld: sistnevnte er mitt tidligere fagmiljø). Det har de siste tiårene blitt vist at de tidligere økonomiske teoriene ikke alene kan forklare hvordan mennesker gjør valg. Når forsøkspersoner tar beslutninger i eksperimenter gjør de ikke alltid det de ville tjent mest på, men er villige til å dele med andre, og er straffende mot de som tar seg til rette. Vi kan forsøke å spørre forsøkspersonene om hvorfor de velger slik, men det er ikke sikkert at de er helt ærlige eller at de forstår valgene sine helt selv.

I slike problemstillinger kan hjerneforskning være nyttig, og det er en slikt “nevro-økonomisk” studie forskerne i Bergen har samarbeidet om. De har studert hvilken del av hjernen som er involvert når en vurderer ulike fordelinger av utbytte mellom to personer. “Hjernen er streng men rettferdig” kunne BT melde. Men er det ikke vi selv som er strenge og rettferdige, heller enn hjernen? Når vi bedømmer ulike fordelinger av goder, så kommer denne bedømmelsen fra hjernen. Og med en tilstrekkelig nøyaktig metode, bør en forvente å finne at hjernen oppfører seg forskjellig når vi bedømmer forskjellig.

Så hvorfor skal vi bruke mye ressurser på å gjøre hjerneavbildning i slike eksperimenter? Svaret på dette er nevnt i siste setning av artikkelen. Her sies det at funnene tyder på at holdning til fordeling av goder bygger på hjernens belønnings-system. Dette tyder på at avvikene i økonomiske valg ikke skyldes tillærte regler, sosial tilhørighet eller lignende, men en mer grunnleggende preferanse for rettferdighet.

Som vi har sett er det fristende å legge vekt på endringer i hjernen når en beskriver forskning på mennesker. Men det burde ikke overraske oss at barn som skiller seg i læringsevne, eller at fordelinger som vurderes ulikt, kan måles som forskjeller i hjernen. Derimot kan hjerneavbildning være nyttig for å forklare hvordan vi utfører en oppgave, og da kan vi finne ut hvilke mekanismer som ligger bak barns læring eller holdning til fordeling av goder.

Monday, 20 October 2014

Book chapter on situation awareness applied in maritime settings

In 2013, our research group "Operational psychology research group" and associated members collaborated on an edited book called "Motivating for safety". The book was intended for practitioners in the industry, in particular captains and safety officers in the maritime field. The book covered topics such as safety climate, sleep deprivation, shared mental models, situation awareness, leadership, psychological capital and hardiness. Each topic is illustrated with cases, exercises and training questions. My chapter on situation awareness is linked below.

Motivating for safety - Chapter 6 - Seeing, understanding, anticipating - Situation awareness as a requirement for safe voyages

Friday, 17 October 2014

Trial lecture on the psychology of risk

In the process of applying for a associate professor position in cognitive psychology, I was asked to deliver a lecture on my own research. Rather than talking about my previous research on the neurocognition of selective attention, I chose to focus the presentation around different research projects I've had on the topic of "risk".

I started out with an example I sometimes use in my lectures to demonstrate the various risks that are relevant to their age group in Norway. I then introduced some classic studies on risk, and some fundamental perspectives. I presented my recent series of Go/NoGo lab experiments intended to model risk perception. I then introduced "situation awareness" as an application of risk in real-word settings, and the related research projects I've run to attempt to approach it in surveys, lab and field experiments. Finally, I discussed some of the consequences of risk, showing how people's behaviour are sometimes changed after considering dangerous situations. Relevant to this, I presented three experiments done in collaboration with Hallgeir Sjåstad, where presenting a threat influenced how security policy was evaluated by a post-Utøya sample.

Trial lecture on "Human factors"

After applying for a position in work and organizational psychology, I was asked to give a trial lecture to the relevant faculty members. The prescribed topic was "Current perspectives in work and organizational psychology". Some of my research interests were in the field of "human factors", and as this topic was not well represented in the present teaching load of the department, my aim was to demonstrate what "human factors" is, and how it relates to other fields of psychology and should be considered a part of work and organizational psychology. I covered the field's history, some general themes, research approaches and applications.

Friday, 3 October 2014

Paper on assessment of conscious states


How can we tell whether an immobiised patient is conscious or not? This was the starting point for the master thesis of three clinical psychology students that I supervised. The students reviewed and provided a synthesis of the recent scientific literature on the subject. After the thesis work was over and the students had left the university for clinical positions, I collaborated with them to rewrite the work into a article intended for Norwegian clinicians.

Table 1:
STATE OF  CONSCIOUSNESSWAKEFULLNESSAWARENESSINTENTIONAL BEHAVIOUR
Normal awake stateYesYesYes
unresponsive wakefulness syndromeYesNoNo
Minimally conscious stateYesOccasionallySome
Locked-in-syndromeYesYesVery limited motor capacity
ComaNoNoNo

The paper gives a definition of consciousness and outlines the clinical disorders of consciousness (see table 1 above). We then categorise four different types of assessment of consciousness: behaviour checklists, electrophysiology, imaging of activation and imaging of networks. We discuss each approach's standing, merits and disadvantages (table 2). Finally we discuss to which extent the assessment approaches reflect the theoretical definition.

Table 2:
APPROACHTYPEEXAMPLESPRINCIPLEADVANTAGESDISADVATAGES
Behaviour checklistActive or passiveGCS-R, SMART, etc., see Seel et al. (2010) for reviewChecklist for whether actions occur, spontaneously or on instructionHas clinical standardUnable to capture consciousness that does not appear in the behavior
Electro-physiologyActive or passiveEEG, ERPElectrodes measure simultaneous fireing of groups of neuronsEquipment readily available can be used on all patients, also at bedsideHard to say where the signal comes from, hard to say which processing the response involves
Imaging of brain activityActivefMRI, PETImaging of the metabolism from activity in different parts of the brainGood localization of the signal, can determine whether a task activates the same areas as in healthy peopleExpensive and scarce equipment, cannot be applied to all patients. Measures the capacity for consciousness, but this capacity is not necessarily in use
Imaging of networksPassiveDefault mode network, DTIMeasures which parts of the brain that are connected, or that are activated simultaneouslyAs above, but does not require active participation from the patientAs above, but in addition it is unclear how the networks should be interpreted

As we wanted to inform Norwegian clinicians working in adjacent fields and next-of-kin to patients with consciousness afflictions, we wanted the paper to be easily accessible. We published in a peer-reviewed Norwegian online open-access journal (abstract in English)

Link to the publication in psykologisk.no (Scandinavian Psychologist).

Monday, 15 September 2014

The "updating" component of WM is differently involved in various noise conditions

Several years ago Patrik Sörqvist and I collected fMRI recordings of participants performing a working memory (WM) task, where WM content updating could be compared to WM maintenance. Soon thereafter we published a paper on the data from the pilot sample of eight participants performing the task in silence.

In addition to examining WM mechanisms, we also wanted to study how the WM functions in different auditory noise conditions. Therefore the majority of the participants performed the task while different noise conditions were played in the background. However, this was not part of our initial publication, and both Patrik and I got involved in other projects, preventing us from publishing on this aspect of the study until this year.

We found that the larger data set (from 18 participants) confirmed the main finding of the pilot study: that updating WM content activates areas mainly in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, the posterior medial frontal cortex and the parietal lobes (shown in red in the animation below, t-values 7-16), while rejecting the input and not updating WM content activates the anterior medial frontal cortex (shown in blue). Comparing this to the similar contrast in our previous publication shows a very similar pattern, indicating a replication of the finding.



In order to address our second research question of how noise affects WM function, all participants performed the study in three different conditions: In silence, in aircraft noise and in speech noise. We wanted to see whether updating WM content in speech noise activated different cortical areas than updating in aircraft noise. As shown in the animation below (t-values 4-9), the prefrontal cortex is involved to a greater extent when updating in speech noise (shown in gold) than when updating in aircraft noise (shown in silver). This could indicate that speech noise is more intrusive on e.g. phonological loop processes, and requires deliberate processing to counteract.
The publication is currently in press at Scandinavian Journal of Psychology. You can find a pdf of the pre-print version of the paper here. The publication is currently in press at Scandinavian Journal of Psychology. You can find a pdf of the pre-print version of the paper here.


Tuesday, 5 August 2014

Presentation of field study for applied network (HFC forum)

I was invited to hold a presentation on my research at one of the meeting for Human Factors in Control, a national network for researchers, industry and consultants that are working with human factors. The presentation is fairly similar to the one I held at HFES in 2012, but somewhat updated and with some added details.